TELL ME, why do Adventists place so much emphasis on the theories of Freud? I don't see how they can possibly accept these theories!" This question was raised by an eminent professor of psychology at a well-known American university. I had just arrived for an interview with him concerning some research I planned on doing.

In the course of the conversation, Dr. Young (not his real name) learned that I was a Seventh-day Adventist and was planning to teach at Andrews University. He seemed quite interested to learn that the Adventists were developing "a new university at Berrien Springs," indicating that he had had some previous contact with us. Then suddenly I was faced with this question, quite unexpectedly it seemed. I could only reply that I did not know why certain Adventists quote Freud and appear to ad here to his theories. I stated that I had not had much contact with Adventist psychologists nor with the professors in the Seminary. His evident earnestness and concern moved me deeply.

The substance of Dr. Young's argument seems to be this: Orthodoxpsychoanalysis as developed by Freud is an anti-Christian philosophy. Some parts of the theory have been subjected to research, but much of it is not subject to scientific investigation. The research does not support Freud's theory in many cases. Freud accepted by faith certain theories being widely discussed in the 1880's, primarily including those of Charles Darwin and organic evolution.

Freud taught that man is basically controlled by innate instincts, principally sex and aggression. He conceived of human nature as evil, fixed, and universal, and he reasoned that man, like a robot, was forced by his instincts to be have in certain ways. These instincts supposedly derive their energy from internal biological drives which literally goad him to perform certain sexual and aggressive acts. Because he possesses this fixed evil nature, man cannot be changed, and is, therefore, not ultimately answerable to any higher power for his sins and wrongdoings. To Freud, man was simply "a noble beast," not "the pilot of his soul" as Christianity teaches. Thus conversion of the soul is impossible and the cross of Christ is irrelevant. Freud charged that society's attempts to neutralize these fixed destructive impulses through a "cultural superego" or "the church" create repression and feelings of guilt. "This has be come," he says, "man's most urgent and important problem," since the result has been neurosis and other forms of mental illness.

The instinct theory has existed since the days of antiquity. The Stoic School of Ancient Greece developed it in its fullest form. The Stoics believed that instincts were a major factor in the behavior of all animals, but not man. The instincts were inborn forms of behavior put there by the gods for the guidance of the creature. These "built-in" forms of behavior are essential to the animal in the attainment of ends necessary for survival, i.e., the finding of food, reproduction, et cetera. They were automatically transferred to the offspring from generation to generation by nature.

Man, however, was seen as a special creation without instincts. His activities were motivated by rational insight that flowed from a free will. He could choose to do the right thing if he came to a realization of the good. The theory was carried through the Christian Era and was accepted by Thomas Aquinas and Rene Descartes. It just so happens that it is very close to the view of most psychologists of our day, if we subtract the religious aspect.

However, in 1859, with the advent of Darwinism and the organic theory of evolution, the instinct theory was destined to undergo some changes. Darwin's voyages about the world in the ship Beagle and his readings of the writings of Thomas Malthus contributed significantly to the development of his theory of origin of the species. He observed the wide dissemination of many species of the same plant or animal over the earth's geographic areas and the changes that occurred in them as a result of continued separation and isolation. This led to the idea that differences in the specific environmental factors affecting plants and animals in different areas were the causes of this variation. He saw that some of the species were better adapted to their environment than others. Thus he came up with the idea that "survival of the fittest" was assured through a process of "natural selection." The species that were less well adapted would eventually become extinct.

Spontaneous Generation

With this as his starting point, Dar win went on to develop the fantastic theory that all living things had evolved from a single living cell that somehow came into existence from dead matter by a principle called spontaneous generation. Man was the highest evolvement from the process of natural selection and was, therefore, a "noble beast" rather than a "fallen saint." If man ascended from the lower animals, then he could only possess their evil nature and was himself the victor in the permanent state of war that occurred be tween all species and the natural environment.

If the innate instincts controlled the lower animals, then it was logical to believe that the instincts also survived in man but in a more elaborate and complex manner. Man was now seen as a creature controlled and manipulated like a puppet on a string by his hundreds of instincts.

Scientists now set out to show that a continuity existed between the instincts found in the higher mammals and man. This would strongly support the theory of organic evolution, and forever banish the theories of Christianity regarding the nature and origin of man. And Dar win's view of the nature of man would be thoroughly verified. As a consequence, Freud would be seen to have solved "man's most urgent and important problem." The overthrow of the "cultural superego" would then be quickly accomplished. No longer would man need to be bowed down with feelings of guilt. No longer need he be burdened with neurosis and mental illnesses.

It was from these roots of Darwinism as well as from the roots of Lamarckism and mesmerism that the theories of Sigmund Freud were fashioned in Vienna in the 1890's. From Lamarckism sprang the notion that all the characteristics of animal and man, including the major patterns of behavior, had been acquired from the organism's fore bears. Since man's ancestors were the lower animals, he had inherited their essential and unchangeable evil characteristics.

From mesmerism, Freud derived the concept of unconscious motivation. His writings are sprinkled with references to such concepts as a "racial unconsciousness." Since he characterized the instincts as regressive, he believed that a phylogenetic regression was a factor to be reckoned with in the psychic life of the individual. These became known as the "death instincts," the chief of which was aggression. This beastly urge to destroy and inflict pain upon others could sometimes only be relieved by a process he called psychoanalysis.

Freud reasoned thus. The anxieties generated by this constant clash be tween man's unchangeable nature and demands of society and the church in crease human unhappiness, and often lead to neurosis and mental illness. In the therapy for neurosis or mental illness, the psychoanalyst all too often tries to readjust the personality of the person by getting rid of this troublesome superego that had been forced upon him. One of the methods used is catharsis for sex and aggression. Freud taught that sex and aggression are "dammed up" inborn instincts that are incapable of being completely repressed. They must, therefore, be redirected, sublimated, et cetera. This could include such activities as theatergoing, card playing and gambling, sexual activity, dressing in indecent apparel, engaging actively or vicariously in competitive sports, and pursuing other dangerous and sinful activities.

In his last large book, Civilization and Its Discontents (1930), Freud left no doubt about his views on the matter of religion, especially Christianity and its promise of a "soon returning Saviour" and its hope of salvation through "the new birth." In a pessimistic tone Freud wrote: "Psychoanalysis has concluded . . . that the primitive, savage, and evil impulses of mankind have not vanished in any individual, but continue their existence, although in repressed state ... and .. . they wait for opportunities to display their activity." After attacking society for denning for man what is "good" and what is "bad" and thereby creating "man's most urgent and important problem" (the feeling of guilt), Freud suggests that man is essentially doomed. He writes: "From this point of view, society, by its very nature, forces man to repress his inborn aggression more and more. The outlook for the future is that the more civilized he be comes, the more potentially destructive he becomes."

Animals Have Instincts

While Freud and many other prominent scientists were making their lists of human instincts, Ellen G. White wrote thus:

"It is no light matter to sin against God, to set the perverse will of man in opposition to the will of his Maker. It is for the best interest of men, even in this world, to obey God's commandments. And it is surely for their eternal interest to submit to God, and to be at peace with Him. The beasts of the field obey their Creator's law in the instinct which governs them. ... Of all the creatures which God has made upon the earth, man alone is rebellious. Yet he possesses reasoning powers to understand the claims of the divine law and a con science to feel the guilt of transgression and the peace and joy of obedience. God made him a free moral agent, to obey or disobey. The reward of everlasting life an eternal weight of glory—is promised to those who do God's will, while the threatenings of His wrath hang over all who defy His law." —The Sanctified Life, p. 76. (Italics supplied.)

Clearly Ellen White taught that the animals had instincts that regulate their behavior, while man was created with few if any instincts, if we use the scientific definition of instinct. As of this moment all psychological research sup ports these statements regarding the natures of man and animal. Since this statement was made before the research was done, it is another instance where the writings of Ellen White demonstrate inspiration.

Freud was doomed to be disappointed by the research on the instinct theory. Time after time theorists compiled lists of man's instincts. Time after time when they put them under the "searchlight of research" they discovered that these so-called instincts were merely the result of insight or experience, and, therefore, attributable to learning. Like John Locke, many modern psychologists came to think of man as entering earthly existence with a mind like a tabula rasa (a blank sheet or tablet) on which experience is then impressed, molding the form and content of his personality.

This extreme opposite view of man was likewise anti-Christian. Tabula rasa merely makes man another type of puppet who is not responsible for his sins. Man is seen as a passive creature with no real will of his own. He is entirely "a prisoner of his culture," behaving in the way he has been taught. In the judgment he could say: "Lord, how can you blame me! It was the way I was reared."

The Christian must see man as possessing from birth a free will and a predisposition to behave in ways that alienate him from God. This predisposition is the result of the curse and those mental impressions that arise from Satan and his angels. The good in man results directly from the influence of the Holy Spirit or those agencies associated with Him. After conversion the nature of man is changed by the "indwelling Christ."

The most beautiful as well as the most wicked of man's inclinations, then, are not the result of a fixed, biological human nature, but are the result of attitudes arising from the social process. By the social process, we mean the interaction that results from the individual's experiences with the world, the environment, the church, and supernatural spiritual forces. Man is ever a free moral agent; he can choose to do good or to do evil, to keep God's commandments or reject them, to allow himself to be saved through the grace of Christ or to be lost for eternity.

A quite different picture has emerged as a result of the research on animal instincts. Their behavior is largely con trolled by elaborate built-in patterns of behavior that occur spontaneously without previous opportunity to learn. For example, a certain wasp makes an elaborate nest from wood by a complicated chemical process without having had the opportunity to learn, and warblers seem to have a remarkable hereditary mechanism for orienting them selves by the stars.

Psychological research on the instinct question has cast doubt upon the teachings of Darwinism and psychoanalysis. This fact seems to be totally unrecognized by the great proportion of scientists. To some, the whole theory of organic evolution seems to be coming apart at the seams. In a recent speech to a professional audience, a professor from Michigan State University referred to organic evolution as "that in comprehensible religion." Another eminent scientist, speaking before a professional convention in Philadelphia, stated that it is no longer possible to be scientific and hold to the theory of organic evolution. There are the impossible missing links and the instinct problem, to mention only two reasons. He proposed a new theory in which life within the basic kinds would be considered as a special creation, distinct and separate from the other independent evolvements from blind forces. This is only a step away from admitting creation by a divine being.

As I walked homeward from my conference with Dr. Young, I reflected upon what had been said. Seventh-day Adventists are becoming a spectacle to the whole world. Persons in high places are indeed watching them and observing what they say. They must be foremost not only in the knowledge of Bible doctrines but also in psychology and the other sciences. In effect, Dr. Young was saying to Adventists: "Shape up! Know what you believe, then say it!"

Bibliography

Darwin, Charles. Origin of Species, 1936 ed. New York: Modern Library, 1859, pp. 32, 590.

Freud, Sigmund. Civilization and Its Discontents. Trans. by James Strackey. New York: W. W. Norton, 1957.

"The Origin and Development of Psychoanalysis," American Journal of Psychology, vol. 21, pp. 181-268.

"On the History of the Psychoanalytic Movement." Volume 4 of Collected Papers of Sigmund Freud. Trans. by Joan
Riviere. London: Hogarth Press, 1949, pp. 287-359.

"Instincts and Their Vicissitudes." Volume 4 of Collected Papers of Sigmund Freud. Trans. by Joan Riviere. London: Hogarth Press, 1949, pp. 60-83.

Moses and Monotheism. Trans. by Katherine Jones. New York: Knoph, 1939, part 3.

Fuller, Curtis. "I See by the Papers," Fate Magazine. Illinois: Clark Publishing Company, 1972, various issues.

Kagan, Jerome, and Earnest Havemann. Psychology, an Introduction. New York: Harcourt, Brace and World, Inc., 1968, pp. 45, 46.

Sanders, F. K., and J. A. Young. "Learning and Other Functions of the Higher Nervous System," Septia J. Neurophysiology, 1940, vol. 2, pp. 129-136.

Sauer, E. G. F. "Celestial Navigation by Birds," Scientific American, 1958, vol. 199, pp. 42-47.

Wilson, E. C. The Theories of Instinct. A Study in the History of Psychology. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1925. See section on Stoic School.


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June 1977

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