Sabbath and Sunday Observance in the Early Church

In the New Testament Era, the seventh-day Sabbath was not only the day on which Christ Himself customarily entered the synagogue (see Luke 4:16) and when during the time of Christ's death the women who intended to anoint His body rested (see Luke 23:54- 56). It also continued to be a day when apostles met for worship services (Paul especially is mentioned; see Acts 13:14, 42-44; 16:13; 17:2; 18:4). As for Sunday (designated the "first day of the week" in the New Testament), that day is noted as the day of Christ's resurrection (see, for example, Mark 16:1-6, 9); and on it there were occasionally some meetings for special reasons, such as on the evening when the disciples met behind shut doors "for fear of the Jews" (John 20:19) or when Paul held a night meeting at Troas probably Saturday night in view of his plans to depart on the next day (Acts 20:6, 7, N.E.B.).*

However, there is no evidence what ever that Sunday was, as is often claimed, the regular day for Christian weekly worship services at that time. In fact, a highly recognized British scholar, C. W. Dugmore, has correctly and pertinently indicated that the first clear evidence of Christian Sunday observance comes from Justin Martyr in Rome about the middle of the second century A.B., and Dugmore makes an additional interesting observation regarding "how little evidence there is in the New Testament and in the literature of the Sub-Apostolic age that Sun day was the most important day in the Christian Week." ¹

We may well query: If Sunday had replaced the Sabbath during the New Testament period, would not the literature have indicated this specifically, and might we not also have expected some polemical overtones in the rather numerous references to these two days? After all, the many references to circumcision in the New Testament almost invariably carry an overtone of polemicism, reflecting the Christian attitude toward change in this regard. And in later Christian history, controversial matters have normally left their indelible witness in polemical literature whether this was in connection with the Christological controversies in the early church councils or the justification-by-faith issue of the Protestant Reformation, et cetera. Should we expect less at the time when Sunday was tending to replace the long-standing Biblical weekly day of worship, the seventh day of the week?

The matter-of-course way in which New Testament references about attendance at Sabbath services are given, together with the lack of emphasis on Sunday as a new day for Christian worship, would suggest that this absence of evidence of struggle and argumentation over the two days means that status quo was still obtaining. In other words, the seventh day was still the day for Christian weekly worship, whereas Sunday had not yet taken on this particular role. Apparently, Sunday was not at first generally looked upon as a substitute for the seventh-day Sabbath. For some time both days were kept side by side—a matter that will become more clear as we proceed.

The Second Century

Perhaps the most observable feature regarding Sabbath and Sunday in the second century (at least, until near the end of the century) is the general lack of information or perhaps rather, the basic silence about them. From only two localities, Alexandria and Rome, is there evidence. The earliest witness is the so-called Barnabas, who may have written from Alexandria about A.D. 130, and his remark is only a passing mention within a fairly long letter in which he endeavors allegorically to interpret Old Testament teaching. In speaking of the 6,000-year concept of earth's duration, he refers to the Sabbath as portraying a sort of millennial period of rest (the seventh "millennial" day). This, he says, is to be followed by "a beginning of the eighth day, that is, a beginning of another world [evidently eternity]" a concept that he connects with the keeping of "the eighth day [Sunday] with joyfulness." ²

The first clear witness to Christian Sunday observance was Justin Martyr, who wrote from Rome about A.D. 150. In his famous Apology he describes rather briefly to the Roman emperor and Roman senate the Christian Sunday services: "And on the day called Sunday, all who live in cities or in the country gather together to one place, and the memoirs of the apostles or the writings of the prophets are read . .." In the same context he refers to administration of communion at the gathering, with the emblems being also taken by deacons to absent members.³ Regarding the seventh-day Sabbath, Justin deals in greater length, in his Dialogue With Trypho, a Jew. Among his many negative statements about the Sabbath in this polemical work, the following will serve as an example: "Do you see that the elements are not idle, and keep no Sabbaths? Remain as you were born." ⁴

Toward the end of the second century, Clement of Alexandria is our first ex ample of a church father who clearly uses the term "Lord's Day" to refer in highly allegorical context to the weekly Sunday.⁵

From the end of the second century (or early third century) onward the evidence for a weekly observance of Sun day throughout Christendom becomes more apparent and is more widespread. Two fifth-century historians, Socrates Scholasticus and Sozomenus, refer to weekly gatherings to celebrate communion on both Sabbath and Sunday generally throughout Christendom, except at Rome and Alexandria.⁶,  ⁷

It is of more than passing interest to notice that the two places mentioned as exceptions to Sabbath observance by these fifth-century historians are precisely the two places from which our earliest evidence of Sunday observance, together with a negative attitude toward the Sabbath, derives in the second century.

Third Through Fifth Centuries

Although the two church historians whom we have just mentioned belong to the fifth century, their testimony pertains not only to the practice that existed in their own day but obviously points also to that practice as having been in vogue for some time. From the late second or early third century on ward the evidence indeed multiplies that early Christians were by then ob serving two weekly days of worship Sabbath and Sunday. Furthermore, the evidence from the third through fifth centuries reveals that controversy existed regarding the manner of observance, and also regarding the question of whether Sunday should be ob served to the exclusion of the Sabbath.

For instance, the Apostolic Constitutions, a fourth-century compilation with materials of varying date from the third and fourth centuries, urges observance of both Saturday and Sunday, the former as "the memorial of creation" and the latter "of the resurrection." ⁸ This source also specifies that slaves should work five days, but that "on the Sabbath-day and the Lord's day" they should be given "leisure to go to church for instruction in piety." ⁹ A third- or fourth-century interpolator of Ignatius declares that "every one of you" should "keep the Sabbath after a spiritual manner," and that following this Sabbath observance every "friend of Christ" should keep "the Lord's Day as a festival . . ." ¹⁰ And John Cassian, whose life bridged the fourth to fifth century, wrote concerning certain Egyptian monks that "except Vespers and Nocturns, there are no public services among them in the day except on Saturday and Sunday, when they meet together at the third hour for the purpose of Holy Communion." ¹¹

Not only, however, does the evidence of the third through the fifth centuries give a picture of widespread observance of both Sabbath and Sunday; many of the sources reveal controversy, as well. ¹² For example, the interpolator of Ignatius, in the passage called to attention above, specifically decries the "Jewish manner" of observing the Sabbath, thus implying that there were Christians adhering to Jewish restrictions such as "walking within a prescribed space." ¹³ However, the controversy over Sabbath and Sunday during these centuries ex tended beyond the manner of Sabbathkeeping. The very fact that Rome and Alexandria had ceased to have worship services at all on the Sabbath would imply this. And other evidence concurs.

Probably the most significant Sabbath-Sunday controversy in the early Christian church was regarding whether or not there should be fasting on the Sabbath. As restrictive as the Jews were concerning Sabbath observance, they nevertheless did not fast on that day. Fasting implied sorrow (see Mark 2:18-20), and the Jews considered the Sabbath to be a day of joy rather than of sadness. ¹⁴

However, a practice of Sabbath fasting did creep into early Christianity. But it did so only in certain geographical regions particularly in Rome and some other places in the West. John Cassian refers to the practice as existing among "some people in some countries of the West, and especially in the city [Rome]"; and Augustine (d. A.p. 430) speaks of it as being a practice in "the Roman Church and some other churches" near it and remote from it. ¹⁵ Indeed, even in the West the important church in Milan in northern Italy did not observe the Sabbath fast; and Christians in the East did not adopt that fast at all. In fact, this question of the Sabbath fast remained a controversial matter between eastern and western segments of the Christian Church as late as the eleventh century. ¹⁶

Augustine reveals the acuteness of the conflict over Sabbath fasting in referring to a certain Roman advocate of the practice who had made extreme denunciation of any who refused to fast on the Sabbath. Although Augustine him self took a mediatory position, he felt that this Roman spokesman was far out of line in condemning those who did not fast on the Sabbath. ¹⁷ A position diametrically opposed to that of the Roman advocate of Sabbath fasting is evidenced in Canon 64 of the Apostolic Constitutions, which specifies, "If any one of the clergy be found to fast on the Lord's day, or on the Sabbath-day, excepting one only, let him be deprived; but if he be one of the laity, let him be suspended." ¹⁸ Similarly, the third- or fourth-century expander of the writings of Ignatius states that "if any one fasts on the Lord's day or on the Sabbath, except on the paschal Sabbath only, he is a murderer of Christ." ¹⁹ (It should be noted that on one Sabbath only, the anniversary of the Sabbath during which Christ was in the tomb, Christians in general throughout all Christendom both East and West considered it appropriate to fast, in sympathy with the disciples who mourned the absence of their Lord.)

Although it is not our purpose to fol low developments beyond the third through fifth centuries, it should be stated that the major eclipse of the Sabbath in favor of Sunday took place in subsequent centuries. But even in that earlier period Sunday was already gaining pre-eminence. Legislative actions undoubtedly helped foster this trend. Such actions would include Emperor Constantine's civil Sunday law of A.D. 321, and church decisions at the regional Council of Laodicea (ca. A.D. 364) prescribing worship on Sunday and ordering that work be done on Saturday.²⁰ Nevertheless, down through the centuries of the Christian Era there have been, of course, many adherents of the seventh-day Sabbath usually without concurrent observance of Sun day.

From the foregoing pattern of historical development the following facts emerge: (1) In the early church the weekly Sunday was not generally considered as a substitute for the Sabbath, for both days were being kept side by side as late as the fifth century. (2) The question of the two days as in any possible conflict with each other does not become evident until the late second or early third century except, possibly, in Rome and Alexandria. (3) The relative silence in the first and second centuries concerning any Sabbath-Sunday controversy would be strong indication that the earlier practice had continued on, without any threat to the seventh-day Sabbath from a new weekly day of worship entering in. (4) The third-through-fifth century evidence of controversy, coupled with the earlier silence, would tend to pinpoint the major rise and spread of weekly Sunday observance as belonging to that time period and fostering a struggle in which eventually Sunday emerged as the main day of weekly Christian worship.

Now the question arises, What factors were operative in bringing about the change that eventually gave Sunday the pre-eminence over the Sabbath? The following list is not exhaustive, but will indicate some of the more important elements that were most likely involved in this transition.

1. Anti-Jewish Sentiment. Various of the anti-Sabbath polemical statements in the early church reveal an anti-Jewish sentiment. For example, Victorinus of Pettan (d. ca. A.D. 303), in advocating the Sabbath fast, even emphasized that the preparation day (Friday) should "become a rigorous fast, lest we should appear to observe any Sabbath with the Jews . . ." ²¹ Such anti-Jewish sentiment was sparked and spurred on by Jewish opposition to the early Christians and also by the disfavor into which Jews had come in official Roman circles because of various Jewish revolts, culminating in that of Bar Cochba in A.D. 132-135. Indeed, Emperor Hadrian (A.D. 117-138) issued decrees against Jewish observances, including the seventh-day Sabbath.

2. The Sabbath Fast. Making the Sabbath a day of fasting and gloom, in contrast to Sunday as a day of joyous celebration, surely had an important bearing in the historical transition from Sabbath to Sunday as the main weekly day of Christian worship.

3. Christian Observance of the Sabbath in Judaistic Fashion. Another influence toward the transition may have derived from the very fact that some Christians tended to keep the Sabbath in a Jewish legalistic fashion. We may recall, for example, the polemical statement of the interpolator of Ignatius, who urged that the Sabbath should be kept in a "spiritual manner" and not in Jewish fashion. John Chrysostom (d. A.D. 407) referred to "many among us now, who fast on the same day as the Jews, and keep the sabbaths in the same manner," and he declares that "we endure it nobly, or rather ignobly and basely." ²² Although the interpolator of Ignatius did not reject Sabbath observance as such, other early Christians did do so. A corrective swing of the pendulum seldom stops midway, and thus certain well-meaning Christians went to the opposite extreme of the Judaizing Christians in the early church by ejecting the Sabbath completely and replacing it with Sunday.

4. Influence of the Pagan Sunday. Al though the Christian Sunday could hardly have originally entered the Christian church directly from paganism, the influence of the pagan Sunday is not necessarily to be entirely dis counted. Even as early as the third century its impact may well have begun to be felt, and it could possibly have been a factor in hastening the development of a weekly Christian Sunday that itself had sprung from other roots. Indeed, Christians in their efforts to evangelize pagans may have considered Sunday observance as a point of common ground. Especially after the time of Constantine in the early fourth century, the influence of pagan institutions on early Christianity became even more basic and central, as historians have generally recognized.

5. The Background of an Annual Easter Sunday. A consideration that has generally been given little attention in the rise of the weekly Sunday is its possible derivation from a prior annual Christian Sunday observance. Recent research has brought to light this possibility. ²³

In Conclusion

The historical data suggest the fol lowing pattern for the transition from Sabbath to Sunday: In the New Testament the Sabbath was the weekly day for Christian worship. During the second century Sunday began to supplant the Sabbath in such places as Rome and Alexandria, although the seventh day was still observed in the rest of the Christian world. In the third through fifth centuries Sunday observance spread much more widely, and considerable controversy arose as to how to keep the Sabbath and as to whether to keep the Sabbath at all.

Various factors were involved in bringing Sunday eventually into preeminence, prominent among them being an anti-Jewish sentiment on the part of many early Christians. At one stage in our presentation we called attention to Constantine's Sunday law and to legislation by the regional Council of Laodicea, actions of a type that undoubtedly helped spur on the transition that made Sunday the main day of Christian worship. But the question may pertinently be asked whether legislation of this sort was indeed true to the intents, methods, and purposes of original Christianity as reflected in the New Testament.